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Power, Displacement and Control
The research on which the paper draws took place over several periods of fieldwork in Central Java between 1994 and 1997. The author also had extensive previous experience of the research area, what has been called “pre-knowledge” (Pagdin 1989:248). Research material was gathered using a variety of methods, including semistructured interviews, direct observation, and participation in organized tours around the Borobudur complex. Interviews were also held with local tourism officials, Indonesian academics and local NGO (nongovernmental organization) activists. Further information was collected from formal government bodies, an independent private sector consultancy group, and the usual literature search. The present research develops the author’s earlier work on small-scale tourism in eastern Indonesia and in Yogyakarta, Java (Hampton, 1998 and Hampton, 2003).
Indonesia, as noted earlier, has a large variety of attractions located across its vast archipelago. Borobudur, as one of the country’s best known attractions, was selected for this study of heritage sites and local communities to illustrate some of the main economic, planning, and management issues. Borobudur is an 8th century Buddhist stupa in central Java with UNESCO World Heritage Site status. It is located about 40 kilometers northwest of the city of Yogyakarta and consists of the main monument and several smaller buildings. The monument is built of approximately two million stone blocks in the shape of a mandala, a geometric shape designed for meditation by pilgrims. From ground level working upwards, there are four square terraces, with a further three levels each of circular design with 72 stupas around the main largest one at the site’s highest point. Many of the 72 small stupas contain statues of Buddha. The whole complex has many intricate stone carvings with those of the lower levels illustrating the Buddha’s journey to enlightenment. It is thought that the main structure’s construction took about 75 years (Dumarcay 1978). With the decline of Buddhism in Java, the site was abandoned and then covered by volcanic ash. During the brief British colonial period under the governorship of Sir Stamford Raffles, excavations began in 1815, with significant work done in the Dutch colonial period in the early 20th century. In the mid-70s the Indonesian government completed a massive restoration project.

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